var files_content = [{"page_id":0,"values":"","link":"1--.php","title":""},{"page_id":1,"values":"GHG emissions from the energy industry GHG emissions from the energy industry in France Note: electricity and heat production (district heating) includes waste incineration with energy recovery. Only marketed heat is included. Data for 2022 are preliminary estimates.Source: Secten format - Citepa, 2023 In 2022, electricity generation, which accounted for 50.5% of the energy industry's emissions in France, saw its emissions rise by 13.5%, mainly due to the shift from nuclear to gas-fired generation. Emissions from district heating (16.2% of the sector's emissions) fell by 17.2%, against a backdrop of falling consumption in residential and services buildings (see p. 60). Between 1990 and 2022, emissions from electricity generation fell by 45.6%, refining by 52.6%, fuel extraction, processing and distribution by 76.4%, and district heating by 18.7%. Conversely, emissions from waste recovery rose by 145.2% over the same period.","link":"10-ghg-emissions-from-the-energy.php","title":"GHG emissions from the energy industry"},{"page_id":2,"values":"GHG emissions from transport GHG emissions from transport in France Note: \"Transport not included in total\" emissions refer to international sea, river and air transport. Data for 2022 are preliminary estimates.Source: Secten format - Citepa, 2023 In 2022, in a context of gradual upturn in traffic from the second half of 2021, transport emissions increased by 2.3%, without returning to their 2019 level. Road transport accounts for 93.8% of the sector's emissions, and therefore accounts for the majority of this increase (+1. 6%). Emissions from French air transport rose by 24.9%. International transport (sea and air), particularly concerned by the recovery from the health crisis, increased by 28% in 2022. Between 1990 and 2022, emissions from road transport rose by 5.6% (+12.5% for heavy goods vehicles,+6. 9% for utility vehicles and+0. 7% for personal vehicles), those from French air transport by 13.9% and those from French river and sea transport by 17.7%. GHG emission intensity of transport in metropolitan France Note: the indicators used for passenger and freight transport are respectively GHG emissions per passenger-km transported and GHG emissions per tonne-km transported.Scope: road (excluding utility vehicles), air, rail, sea and river transport in metropolitan France.Sources: SDES, Annual transport report in 2021; Secten format - Citepa, 2023 Transport emissions intensity corresponds to the quantity of GHGs emitted to transport one tonne of goods or one passenger over one kilometer. This indicator varies according to several factors, including modal shift (from rail to road, for example), vehicle load factor and fuel efficiency. Since the 1990s, the GHG emissions intensity of domestic freight transport has been decreasing on a downward trend (-19% between 1990 and 2021), with a notable rebound after the economic crisis of 2008 and, to a lesser extent, after the health crisis of 2020. Similarly, the emissions intensity of passenger transport in metropolitan France is gradually decreasing (-20% between 1990 and 2021), mainly thanks to improvements in vehicle energy efficiency. It is also rebounding after the health crisis, notably as a result of the modal shift from public transport to private vehicles.","link":"11-ghg-emissions-from-transport.php","title":"GHG emissions from transport"},{"page_id":3,"values":"GHG emissions from industry GHG emissions in manufacturing and construction in France Note: 2022 data are a preliminary estimate.Source: Secten format - Citepa, 2023 By 2022, emissions from the manufacturing and construction industries fell by 6.4%. Emissions from chemicals, non-metallic minerals and construction materials, ferrous metals and food processing account for 81.6% of the sector's emissions. With the exception of construction (+2.4% in 2022), all sub-sectors saw their emissions fall, notably as a result of reduced consumption of natural gas and coal, and lower production in certain sectors. Over the period 1990-2022, the sector's emissions fell sharply, from 139 to 73 Mt CO2 eq. This sharp drop concerns most sub-sectors, with the exception of construction (+9.2%) and agrifood (-1. 8%). GHG emissions intensity in manufacturing and construction in France Note: emissions are related to value added in manufacturing and construction. The 2022 emissions data are a preliminary estimate.Sources: SDES, based on Insee, 2023; Secten format - Citepa, 2023 In the EU and France, GHG emissions from the manufacturing and construction industries come mainly from sectors producing CO2 intensive commodities such as metallurgy, chemicals and the manufacture of non-metallic minerals (cement, lime, glass, etc.). While the economic crises of 2008-2009 and 2020 have played a role, particularly in the metallurgy sector, most of the emissions reductions are due to process improvements and energy efficiency gains. In the chemicals sector, for example, emissions have fallen by 62% in France between 1990 and 2022, thanks in particular to a drastic reduction in N2O emissions (-98.2%) linked to the production of adipic and nitric acids. Between 1990 and 2022, the GHG emissions intensity of the manufacturing and construction industries was reduced by 44.7%.","link":"12-ghg-emissions-from-industry.php","title":"GHG emissions from industry"},{"page_id":4,"values":"GHG emissions from the residential and services sectors GHG emissions from the residential and services sectors in France Note: the climatic severity index is the ratio between an observed climate indicator and a reference climate indicator. The higher the index, the colder the winter. The 2022 emissions data are a preliminary estimate.Sources: Secten format - Citepa, 2023; SDES, based on Météo-France Emissions from the residential and services sectors are highly dependent on climatic conditions. In 2022, under the combined effect of a mild winter, higher energy prices and energy-saving policies, emissions from this sector fell by 14.7%, reaching a record low since 1990. The residential sector accounts for around two-thirds of the sector's emissions, and the services sector one-third. Heating, domestic hot water production and cooking accounted for 83.3% of emissions in 2022. GHG emission intensity of the residential and services sectors in France Note: services sector emissions are based on the added value of the services sector (excluding transport), while residential emissions are based on the number ofm2 inhabited. The 2022 emissions data are a preliminary estimate.Sources: SDES, Housing Account Report 2022; Insee; Secten format - Citepa, 2023 Between 1990 and 2022, value added in the services sector rose by 71.2%, while emissions fell by 23.9%. Similarly, between 1990 and 2021, the inhabited surface area (dwellings excluding second homes and vacant dwellings) increased by 55.3%, while residential emissions fell by 50.8%. This reduction in emissions intensity is mainly due to the improved energy performance of buildings and the switch to less carbon-intensive energies, mainly for heating (from coal and fuel oil to gas, electricity and heat pumps).","link":"13-ghg-emissions-from-the-residential.php","title":"GHG emissions from the residential and services sectors"},{"page_id":5,"values":"GHG emissions from agriculture GHG emissions from agriculture in France Note: Citepa does not produce provisional estimates for agriculture; data therefore stop at 2021.Source: Secten format - Citepa, 2023 Agriculture differs from other sectors in the low proportion of emissions due to energy combustion. The main sources of emissions are methane (CH4), mainly emitted by animals (enteric fermentation), and N2O, linked to the transformation of nitrogen products (agricultural soils: fertilizers, manure, slurry, etc.). Between 1990 and 2021, emissions from this sector fell by 13.4%. Livestock farming, which accounts for 59.5% of the total in 2021, saw its emissions fall by 14.6%, as did agriculture (-14.9%), which accounts for 27% of emissions. The use of machinery, engines and boilers (13.5% of the total) fell by only 3.2% over the same period. GHG emissions from LULUCF in France Note: Citepa does not produce provisional estimates for LULUCF; data therefore stop at 2021.Source: Secten format - Citepa, 2023 As in the EU as a whole (see p. 49), total emissions from land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) are negative in France, mainly thanks to forest growth. Nevertheless, the scale of CO2 uptake by forests since 2015 has been revised downwards compared with estimates from previous years. The decline in the carbon sink can be explained by several phenomena affecting French forests: increased mortality (notably due to droughts), slower growth and increased harvesting.","link":"14-ghg-emissions-from-agriculture.php","title":"GHG emissions from agriculture"},{"page_id":6,"values":"GHG emissions from centralized waste processing GHG emissions from waste management in France Note: not including waste incineration with energy recovery (included in \"Energy industry\"). Citepa does not produce provisional estimates for waste; data therefore stop at 2021.Source: Secten format - Citepa, 2023 Waste management mainly emits methane when waste decomposes in landfills. After rising in the 1990s, emissions from this sector have been falling since the mid-2000s in France (-25.2% between 2005 and 2021).","link":"15-ghg-emissions-from-centralized-waste.php","title":"GHG emissions from centralized waste processing"},{"page_id":7,"values":"Carbon footprint and territorial emissions Two complementary methods can be used to assess a country's pressure on the climate: National inventories (territorial approach) record the quantities of GHGs physically emitted within the country by households (cars and housing) and economic activities (fossil fuel consumption, industrial processes and agricultural emissions). Data from inventories, compiled annually to meet UNFCCC standards, are the most common and are currently the preferred basis for international comparisons. The carbon footprint is an estimate of the GHG emissions induced by a country's domestic final demand (final consumption and investments). The footprint is made up of direct household emissions (housing and vehicles), emissions from domestic production (excluding exports) and emissions from foreign economic activities whose production is destined for domestic imports. Comparison of France's carbon footprint and the national inventory in 2019 Note: the footprint and inventory (see glossary) cover the three main GHGs (CO2, CH4, N2O) excluding LULUCF.Because international transport is accounted for differently in each approach, the subtotals (household emissions and domestic production emissions) in the footprint and inventory are not identical.Scope: Kyoto perimeter (metropolitan France and EU overseas territories).Sources: Citepa; IEA, EDGAR-JRC; FAO; Customs; Eurostat; Insee. Processing: SDES, 2023 France's carbon footprint is significantly higher than its domestic emissions: 625 Mt CO2 eq versus 423 Mt CO2 eq, i.e. 48% more emissions in 2019. Emissions associated with exports account for 28% of emissions on the national territory, while emissions associated with imports make up half of the carbon footprint in 2019. International comparison of CO2 emissions by approach Source: Global Carbon Budget 2022. Processing: SDES, 2023 Between 1990 and 2020, CO2 emissions from fossil fuels, flaring and cement production in OECD countries fell by 8% according to the inventory approach and by 3% according to the footprint approach. In the EU-27, over the same period, they fell by 32% according to the inventory approach and by 27% according to the footprint approach. These decreases are partly linked to the health crisis. In 2021, inventory emissions from OECD countries and the EU-27 increased compared with 2020, but did not exceed 2019 emission levels. Footprint emissions data for 2021 are not yet available. In China, emissions more than quadrupled between 1990 and 2020. Evolution of France's carbon footprint (e) = estimates.Note: the carbon footprint covers the three main greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, N2O).Scope: \"Kyoto\" perimeter (metropolitan France and EU overseas territories).Sources: Citepa; IEA; FAO; Customs; Eurostat; Insee. Processing: SDES, 2023 In 2022, according to provisional estimates, France's carbon footprint would be 623 Mt CO2 eq, up 8% on 2021. After the drop in emissions in 2020 due to the Covid-19 pandemic, the footprint would rise again, returning to a level close to 2019 in 2022. Since 1995, the carbon footprint has decreased by 7%, while domestic final demand, the volume of which partly determines the level of the footprint, has increased by 51%. This reduction in the footprint reflects two distinct dynamics: a 33% reduction in domestic emissions and a 32% increase in emissions associated with imports. By 2022, imported emissions would account for 56% of total footprint emissions. On a per capita basis, the carbon footprint is estimated at 9.2 tonnes of CO2 eq per person in 2022, down 19% on 1995. The carbon footprint of France's final demand by consumption item In 2019, the average carbon footprint of a French person is estimated at 9.3 tonnes of CO2 eq. Direct household emissions and those associated with the 64 goods and services making up final demand can be allocated to different consumption items: travel, housing, food, equipment and services. Transportation, housing and food account for three-quarters of the GHG emissions in France's carbon footprint: 32% for household transport (3.0 t CO2 eq\/capita), 22% for housing (2.1 t CO2 eq\/capita), 21% for food (1.9 t CO2 eq\/capita), 10 % for the purchase of capital goods (0.9 t CO2 eq\/capita) and 15% for market and non-market services used by households (1.4 t CO2 eq\/capita). Around half of emissions are imported for travel (49%), food (47%), and administration, health, education and social action (44%). Imported emissions are predominant for equipment (82%) and market services (62%), and a minority for housing (37%). Breakdown of the carbon footprint by consumption item in 2019 Note: the footprint and inventory (see glossary) cover the three main GHGs (CO2, CH4, N2O) excluding LULUCF.Scope: \"Kyoto\" perimeter (metropolitan France and EU overseas territories).Sources: SDES, 2023, based on Citepa; AIE; EDGAR-JRC; FAO; Douanes; Eurostat; Insee","link":"16-carbon-footprint-and-territorial-emissions.php","title":"Carbon footprint and territorial emissions"},{"page_id":8,"values":"Carbon pricing around the world Evolution of revenues by carbon pricing instrument Source: World Bank, 2023 To encourage economic decision-makers to invest more in clean energy or low-carbon technologies and less in GHG-emitting technologies, some countries have decided to put an economic value on the emission of a tonne of CO2. Two instruments put an explicit price on carbon: the carbon tax sets a price per tonne of CO2, and the Emissions Trading System (ETS) sets a maximum quantity of allowable emissions. Carbon pricing instruments generated $86 billion in revenues in 2022, compared with $11 billion in 2010, an increase of 657% in 12 years. In 2022, 76% of carbon revenues were generated by quota markets, i.e. $66 billion, and 24% by taxes. Evolution of the share of global GHG emissions covered by a carbon pricing instrument Note: coverage data come from governments or estimates. They are related to global GHG emissions in the EDGAR database. Data from the Chinese carbon market, which explains the sharp increase since 2021, are preliminary estimates.Source: World Bank, 2023 With the exception of a few national carbon taxes in European countries, it wasn't until the introduction of the European Emissions Trading System in 2005 that the proportion of global GHG emissions covered by carbon pricing instruments exceeded 1%. It was then in North America and Asia that carbon taxes and quota markets multiplied, reaching 23% coverage by 2023. Africa had its first instrument in 2019, with the creation of a carbon tax in South Africa. The European ETS covers 38% of the European Union's GHG emissions. In France, the carbon tax (€44.6\/t CO2 eq) covers 35% of emissions, mainly in the transport, residential, services and industrial sectors outside the ETS. A number of sectors and uses are exempt or benefit from reduced rates.","link":"17-carbon-pricing-around-the-world.php","title":"Carbon pricing around the world"},{"page_id":9,"values":"Commitments of the European Union Evolution of the 2030 climate and energy framework As part of the Green Pact for Europe, the European Union has adopted the goal of achieving carbon neutrality by 2050, and has committed to reducing its net emissions by at least 55% by 2030 compared to 1990 levels. To achieve this, the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union have adopted more ambitious sectoral targets than those previously defined in the revised 2018 Climate and Energy Action Framework: reduction of at least 55% in net GHG emissions compared with 1990 (instead of the current 40%); target of 42.5% renewable energies (with an additional indicative target of 2.5% to reach 45%) in gross final energy consumption (currently 32%); reduction of at least 38% in final energy consumption and 40.6% in primary energy consumption compared with the Baseline 2007 reference scenario (see glossary) - (currently 32.5% in primary and final energy). Effort sharing and revision of the 2030 framework The two instruments mobilized to reduce the EU's GHG emissions are the European Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) and the Effort Sharing Regulation, which defines national reduction targets for sectors outside the EU ETS. The 2030 target of at least 40% reduction in GHG emissions compared with 1990 was translated into a target of -43% compared with 2005 for the EU ETS, and -30% compared with 2005 for other sectors. With the adoption of the new European emissions reduction target of -55% net by 2030 compared with 1990, new targets have been adopted for these two instruments as part of the \"Fit for 55\" package: the targeted reductions are respectively -62% for sectors covered by the EU ETS and -40% for other sectors. Share of renewable energies in member states' gross final energy consumption Note: the calculation method for this indicator (defined in directive (EU) 2018\/2001) includes bonuses for non-food biofuels and electricity in transport, as well as statistical transfers between member states (purchase of renewable energy).Source : Eurostat, 2023 GHG emissions from stationary installations covered by the EU ets by type of activity (2015-2022) Note: \"Other\" includes the production of glass, lime, paper, ceramics and non-ferrous metals.Source: EEA, 2023 Trends in GHG emissions in the EU-27 and trajectory of 2020 and 2030 targets Note: the blue arrow corresponds to the evolution of GHG emissions compared to 1990 (excluding LULUCF and international aviation), the green arrows correspond to the 2020 and 2030 targets and the red arrow corresponds to the new target set by the\"Fit for 55\" package. Source: EEA and European Commission, 2023 Evolution of primary energy consumption in the EU-27 and trajectory of 2020 and 2030 targets Note: the blue arrow shows the evolution of current energy consumption compared with the 2007 reference scenario, the green arrows show the 2020 and 2030 targets compared with the 2007 reference scenario, and the red arrow shows the new target set by the\"Fit for 55\" package. Source: EEA and European Commission, 2023","link":"18-commitments-of-the-european-union.php","title":"Commitments of the European Union"},{"page_id":10,"values":"French policies to tackle climate change France is committed to reducing its greenhouse gas emissions by 40% between 1990 and 2030 and, with the Energy and Climate Law adopted in 2019, to achieving carbon neutrality in 2050 by dividing emissions by a factor of more than six compared with 1990. The 2030 target will be revised shortly to bring it into line with the new European 2030 objective of -55% net. The revised national low-carbon strategy (SNBC), adopted by decree in April 2020, incorporates the goal of carbon neutrality. It provides guidelines for implementing the transition to a low-carbon economy in all sectors of activity, reducing emissions in France and, more generally, France's carbon footprint. These guidelines have been translated into legislation covering all GHG-emitting sectors (Hydrocarbons Act in 2017, Energy and Climate Act in 2019, Mobility Orientation Act in 2019, Anti-Waste Act for a Circular Economy in 2020, Act to Combat Climate Change and Build Resilience to its Effects in 2021, etc.). Carbon budgets, or caps on greenhouse gas emissions in France, define the target trajectory for emissions reductions over successive five-year periods, in line with the goal of carbon neutrality by 2050. National carbon budgets In Mt CO2 eq 1st carbon budget 2015-2018 2nd carbon budget 2019-2023 3rd carbon budget 2024-2028 4th carbon budget 2029-2033 Total excluding LULUCF 442 422 359 300 Source: Decree no. 2015-1491 of november 18, 2015 and Decree no. 2020-457 of april 21, 2020 on national carbon budgets and the national low-carbon strategy. The multi-annual energy program (PPE) for the period 2019-2028, also adopted by decree in April 2020, sets out the priorities for action by the public authorities in managing all forms of energy, in line with the SNBC. Comparison of emissions with the 2019-2023 carbon budget In Mt CO2 eq 2nd carbon budget SNBC no. 22019-2023 Indicative carbon budget estimates (High Council on Climate) 2019-2022 Actual emissions 2019-2022 (e) Differences between actual emissions and the indicative estimates of the High Council on Climate 2019-2022 Transport 128 130 126 - 3 % Residential and services building use and activities 78 80 72 - 10 % Agriculture\/forestry 82 78 77 - 1 % Manufacturing and construction 72 76 76 0 % Energy industry 48 50 44 - 12 % Centralized waste processing 14 13 16 20 % Land use, land-use change and forestry - 39 - 41 - 18 - 55 % Total excluding LULUCF and CCS* 422 426 410 - 4 % Total with LULUCF, excl. CCS* 383 385 392 2 % * Excluding CCS = excluding technological carbon capture and storage.Note: indicative values for the 2nd carbon budget by year and sector are estimates by the High Council on Climate; emissions data for 2022 are provisional estimates.Sources: Decree 2020-457 of 21 April 2020 on national carbon budgets and the national low-carbon strategy; High Council on Climate annual report, June 2023; Inventory in Secten format, Citepa, April 2023 Average GHG emissions for the years 2019 to 2022, excluding LULUCF, are below (-4%) the indicative average annual carbon budget estimated by the High Council on Climate for the period 2019-2023. Only the centralized waste treatment sector shows emissions slightly above the carbon budget. On the other hand, for the same period, taking LULUCF into account, national emissions exceed the 2nd carbon budget by 2%. The latest estimates of GHG flows from the LULUCF sector identify a deterioration in carbon storage by forests (lower growth and higher mortality of trees, increased harvesting). This LULUCF sector is crucial to achieving the objectives of the SNBC, as residual emissions in 2050 must be offset by storage, notably by natural sinks such as forests, in order to achieve carbon neutrality. Climate investments in France Note: the scope of the 2022 edition of The Landscape of climate finance has been revised in relation to previous versions and cannot be compared with them. Changes in sources, methodology and scope lead to revised results for the entire period covered by the study.Source: I4CE, Landscape of climate finance, 2022 edition Nearly 84 billion euros in climate-friendly investments have been identified for 2021. After a slight dip in 2020, they are up 27% year-on-year, driven by the economic recovery, increased public funding and regulatory measures. Since 2011, investment in climate protection has risen by 79%. This sharp rise is due in particular to investments in low-carbon vehicles: multiplied by 46 since 2011, they are responsible for 38% of the total increase in climate investments. Energy-efficient building renovation accounted for 22% of the total increase in investment (+68% since 2011). According to initial estimates, climate investments will continue to grow in volume terms in 2022 and 2023, but at a slower pace than that seen between 2020 and 2021. Climate investments in France by sector in 2021 Source: I4CE, Landscape of climate finance, 2022 edition The Landscape of climate finance covers three sectors: building, transport and energy production. In 2021, France has earmarked almost 23 billion euros for the energy performance of new buildings and almost 20 billion euros for the energy renovation of housing. Transportation comes next, with €14 billion allocated to low-carbon vehicles and €13 billion to modal shift infrastructure. Investments in renewable energies are approaching 10 billion euros, while nearly 5 billion euros have been allocated to the development and extension of nuclear power plants. Readers interested in this topic will find more information at www.i4ce.org\/en. Figures for 2022 and 2023 will be available in November 2023.","link":"19-french-policies-to-tackle-climate.php","title":"French policies to tackle climate change"},{"page_id":11,"values":"Observations of climate change Global annual mean temperature change from 1850 to 2022 Sources: IPCC, 1st Working Group, 2021 and HadCrut 5 The global average temperature of land surface air and ocean surface water has risen sharply. The deviation from the average of the pre-industrial reference period 1850-1900 is limited until the mid-1930s, after which it generally becomes slightly positive until around 1980. Since the early 1980s, warming has become clearly more pronounced, and each of the last four decades has successively been the warmest since 1850. Warming over the last decade (2013-2022) is 1.14°C compared with the pre-industrial era. In 2022, the global average temperature increase reached 1.26°C compared to the pre-industrial era. The years 2015-2022 were the eight warmest on record, despite the cooling effect of a La Niña episode in the last three years. Glacier melt from 1950 to 2022 Note: annual mass balance of reference glaciers that have been glaciologically measured for more than 30 years. Annual mass change values are given on the y-axis in the unit meter water equivalent (m w.e.) which corresponds to tonnes per square meter: 1,000 kg\/m2).Source: WGMS In the hydrological years 2020-21 and 2021-22, the observed reference glaciers suffered ice loss of 0.8 m w.e. and 1.2 m w.e.respectively. Eight of the ten years with the most negative values were recorded after 2010. The melting of all continental glaciers (excluding Greenland and Antarctica) contributed 41% of the rise in sea level over the period 1901-2018. The contribution of Greenland and Antarctica (not included in this graph) to the rise in mean sea level was four times greater over the period 2010-2019 than over the period 1992-1999. Evolution of the global average sea level since 1993 Source: E.U. Copernicus Marine Service Information The rate of sea-level rise derived from tide gauges and altimetry observations has accelerated in recent decades. It has risen from 1.4 mm per year over the period 1901-1990 to 2.1 mm per year over the period 1970-2015, to 3.2 mm per year over the period 1993-2015 (IPCC, SROCC), reaching 4.2 mm per year over the period 2007-2022 (Copernicus, 2023). Around 38% of sea level rise is due to expansion caused by rising water temperatures over the period 1901-2018 (IPCC, 2022). Evolution of the average annual temperature in Metropolitan France since 1900 Note: the change in mean annual temperature is shown as the deviation from the average observed over the period 1961-1990 (11.8°C).Scope: metropolitan France.Source: Météo-France As on a global scale, the evolution of average annual temperatures in metropolitan France shows a clear warming since 1900. The rate of warming has varied, with a particularly marked increase since the 1980s. In 2022, the average annual temperature across the country reached 14.5°C, 2.7°C above normal (average observed over the 1961-1990 period), replacing 2020 (+2.3°C with 14.1°C) as the hottest year since measurements began in 1900. The warmest years since 1900 are all after the 2000s: 2014 (13.8°C), 2018 (13.9°C), 2020 (14.1°C) and 2022 (14.5°C). Temperatures and precipitation in metropolitan France from 1959 to 2022 Note: from 2000 onwards, years are colored orange.Scope: metropolitan France.Source: Météo-France Although 2022 was the hottest year on record, it was also the driest, with record rainfall deficits in May and July. July 2022 was almost 85% drier than the 1991-2020 reference average, making it the second driest month since 1959. With an average rainfall deficit of close to 25%, 2022 ranks as the second driest year since 1959, almost on a par with 1989, which remains narrowly in first place, and far ahead of 2005, with a deficit of almost 20%. Number of fires and area burned in metropolitan France from 2006 to 2022 Scope: metropolitan France.Source: EFFIS In France, more than 66,000 hectares of forest have been reduced to ashes, and almost 300 fires were recorded in 2022. Western regions such as Brittany are no longer spared. In 2022, the European Union recorded a record level of areas burnt by forest fires, with 785,000 hectares going up in smoke. These fires resulted in total CO2 emissions for 2022 estimated at 9 megatons (Copernicus, EFFIS), compared with an average of 6.75 megatons in 2003-2021. Number of French departments affected by water use restriction orders during the summer Note: number of French departments affected by at least one prefectoral order restricting water use beyond the\"vigilance\" level. From 2002 to 2011: on the date of the monthly hydrological situation bulletin; from 2012: on the 15th of the month in question.Scope: metropolitan France.Source: Propluvia, Ministry of Ecological Transition. Processing: SDES, 2023 In 2022, a particularly hot and dry year, almost all departments in metropolitan France were affected by a prefectoral water restriction order. The proportion of departments affected was 77% on July 15, 2022, and 97% on August 15 and September 15. The restrictions continued into October, despite a rainy month, and in some cases lasted until the end of the year. Crisis restrictions, severely limiting or prohibiting non-priority water uses, were put in place in over a quarter of French departments in July, and in almost 80% from mid-August to mid-September. Since 2015, restrictions on water use during the summer have been observed 7 years out of 8 in more than 50% of French departments.","link":"2-observations-of-climate-change.php","title":"Observations of climate change"},{"page_id":12,"values":"The different GHG inventory formats In France, several inventory formats coexist. The international reference is the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) GHG inventory format. It is the official document communicated by States as part of their international political commitments to tackle climate change. The inventory in Secten format (economic sectors and energy) was developed by Citepa at the request of the French Ministry in charge of climate change, to provide more accessible information. The Secten format is used to define and assess national public climate policies, in particular the national low-carbon strategy (SNBC). Comparison of UNFCCC and Secten inventories Scope: Kyoto perimeter (metropolitan France and EU overseas territories).Sources: Citepa, 2023 - inventory in Secten format and CRF-FRK tables (UNFCCC) Although equivalent in terms of total mass, the UNFCCC and Secten inventories present a slightly different breakdown of emissions by sector. The UNFCCC inventory format relates emissions strictly to the activity from which they originate (e.g.: emissions linked to the use of air conditioning in road vehicles come from the\"industrial processes\" source; emissions from agricultural machinery are inventoried in the \"energy\" category). The Secten inventory format favors sectoral consistency (e.g. vehicle air-conditioning emissions are assigned to\"transport\"; agricultural machinery emissions are assigned to the\"agriculture\" sector).","link":"20-the-different-ghg-inventory-formats.php","title":"The different GHG inventory formats"},{"page_id":13,"values":"Some emission factors CO2 emission factors for the main fossil fuels Lignite (low-energy coal) 4.2t CO2 \/toe Coal (coking, sub-bituminous or other bituminous) 4.0t CO2 \/toe Diesel or crude oil 3.1t CO2 \/toe Gasoline 2.9t CO2 \/toe Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) 2.6t CO2 \/toe Natural gas (methane) 2.3t CO2 \/toe Note: GWP at 100 years, factors according to the 4th IPCC report (AR 4). Source : IPCC, 2019 CO2 emission factors indicate the quantity of CO2 emitted when burning a given fuel and for a given unit of energy (here in toe). The case of biomass is not dealt with here: it is assumed that direct CO2 emissions linked to biomass combustion are offset by CO2 absorption during plant growth. If this is not the case, the uncompensated emissions are recorded in the LULUCF sector. Emissions factors from common production activities It is possible to extend the concept of emissions factors to company production by dividing the GHG emissions directly emitted by an activity to the physical quantities of goods or services produced. Sector Emission factors Comment Power generation 1.058t CO2 \/MWh for a coal-fired power plant Average for France in 2021 0.418t CO2 \/MWh for a gas-fired power plant 0.006t CO2 eq\/MWh for a nuclear power plant Industry 1.8t CO2 \/tonne of steel Conventional process (non-recycled crude steel) 0.64t CO2 \/tonne of cement Average for France in 2019, per tonne of cement equivalent Agriculture and forestry 4.4t CO2eq\/dairy cow\/year Average for France in 2018, emissions linked toenteric fermentation andmanuremanagement 580t CO2eq\/ha of deforested tropical forest World average, emissions from combustion and decomposition of organic matter Sources: Ademe; Cement Sustainability Initiative; Citepa; SDES Carbon content of everyday objects and actions The GHG balance sheet is based on a \"life-cycle\" approach. It integrates several phases linked to the activity associated with the emissions factor. For example, for a kilometer driven by car, the GHG balance includes direct emissions due to the combustion of gasoline or diesel, as well as emissions from the extraction and refining of the fuel, its transport and distribution, and those linked to the manufacture of the car. Note: Indicators from the Empreinte database are updated at variable frequencies. For example, data for the TGV and metro evolve each year according to the carbon intensity of electricity production.Source: Ademe, Empreinte database, 2023","link":"21-some-emission-factors.php","title":"Some emission factors"},{"page_id":14,"values":"Glossary Anthropogenic: related to human activities (industry, agriculture, etc.). Primary energy mix: for a given geographical area, the breakdown of consumption from different energy sources before they are transformed and made available to users. UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. CO2 equivalence (CO2eq): method of measuring greenhouse gas emissions that takes into account the warming power of each gas relative to that of CO2; Mt CO2 eq: million tonnes of CO2 equivalent; Gt CO2 eq: billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent. Fugitive emissions: unintentional emissions, leaks. Renewable energies (RE): these are energies derived from natural processes that are constantly being renewed. Purely electrical renewables include hydropower, wind power, tidal power and photovoltaic solar energy. Thermal renewables include firewood, incinerated wood and crop residues, incinerated urban and industrial waste of biological origin, biogas, biofuels, solar thermal energy, geothermal energy for heat or electricity, and heat pumps. ETS: CO2 Emission Trading System (ETS). GHG: greenhouse gases, gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and man-made, which absorb and re-emit infrared radiation. IPCC : Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), created by the World Meteorological Organization and the United Nations Environment Programme, responsible for synthesizing scientific work on climate change. Inventory: the greenhouse gas inventory for a given territory is a table by major sector, presenting emissions in a simple form that can be used by anyone seeking an objective overview. Inventories are produced using the methodological principles defined by the IPCC. The inventories are published on the UNFCCC website. Annex I and Annex B countries: UNFCCC Annex I countries are made up of developed countries and countries in transition to a market economy. They include the EU, USA, Canada, Australia and Russia, but exclude China and India. With a few exceptions, these countries correspond to those listed in Annex B of the Kyoto Protocol, which sets out the quantified commitments with which they must comply. GDP: gross domestic product. A measure of the wealth created by a country over a period of time. Its measurement in purchasing power parity (PPP) enables comparisons between countries. GWP: Global Warming Potential. Used to compare the contribution of different greenhouse gases to global warming over a given period. It should be noted that the 100-year GWPs of the various GHGs have varied over the course of the IPCC reports. This is to be expected, since GWPs, which reflect effects compared with those of CO2, are in fact dependent on: concentrations of the various greenhouse gases already present in the atmosphere; the natural cycles of the gases in question, which determine the rate at which they are purified from the atmosphere, and therefore their\" lifetime\" in the air. The GWPs used in Parts 2, 3 and 4 to convert CO2, CH4 and N2O data to CO2 eq are based on the 100-year GWPs of the IPCC AR5. Industrial processes: this category covers greenhouse gas emissions from industrial processes associated with chemical or physical transformations other than energy combustion, such as decarbonation in cement production. Emissions quota: unit of account in the carbon market system. Represents one tonne of CO2. Fossil reserves: quantities of oil, gas and coal recoverable from deposits already discovered, based on current economic and technical constraints. Baseline 2007 scenario : this scenario, prepared for the European Commission by the E3M laboratory of the Institute of Communication and Computer Systems at the National Technical University of Athens, presents projections for the EU energy system up to 2030. It takes into account policies implemented in member states up to the end of 2006. International bunkers: emissions linked to international air and sea transport. toe: tonne of oil equivalent. Unit of measurement for energy. LULUCF: Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry.","link":"22-glossary.php","title":"Glossary"},{"page_id":15,"values":"Useful websites Ademe Ecological Transition Agency www.ademe.fr\/en\/frontpage\/ Ademe Empreinte database base-empreinte.ademe.fr AEE European Environment Agency www.eea.europa.eu AIE International Energy Agency www.iea.org UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change unfccc.int Citepa Centre interprofessionnel technique d'études de la pollution atmosphérique (Interprofessional technical center for the study of atmospheric pollution) www.citepa.org\/en European Commission Directorate-General for Climate Action ec.europa.eu\/clima\/index EUTL-European Union Transaction Log ec.europa.eu\/environment\/ets Copernicus The Earth as seen from Europe www.copernicus.eu Drias the future of climate Météo-France, IPSL, CERFACS www.drias-climat.fr IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change www.ipcc.ch HCC High Council on Climate www.hautconseilclimat.fr\/en I4CE Institute for Climate Economics www.i4ce.org\/en MTECT - MTE Ministry of Ecological Transition and Territorial Cohesion - Ministry of The Energy Transition www.ecologie.gouv.fr SDES - French Sustainable Development Commission www.statistiques.developpement-durable.gouv.fr National Low-Carbon Strategy (SNBC) www.ecologie.gouv.fr\/strategie-nationale-bas-carbone-snbc Multiannual energy planning (PPE) www.ecologie.gouv.fr\/programmations-pluriannuelles-lenergie-ppe Second National Climate Change Adaptation Plan (PNACC) www.ecologie.gouv.fr\/sites\/default\/files\/2018.12.20_PNACC2.pdf NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration www.noaa.gov Météo-France Monitoring climate change at Météo-France services.meteofrance.com\/climatechange Onerc National observatory on the effects of global warming www.ecologie.gouv.fr\/observatoire-national-sur-effets-du-rechauffement-climatique-onerc Université Paris-Dauphine - CGEMP Center for Geopolitics of Energy and Raw Materials www.cgemp.dauphine.fr Climate Economics Chair www.chaireeconomieduclimat.org","link":"23-useful-websites.php","title":"Causes of climate change"},{"page_id":15,"values":"Causes of climate change The natural greenhouse effect and its disruption by human activities Current energy flows in W\/m2 Note: the Earth constantly receives energy from the sun. The part of this energy that is not reflected by the atmosphere, such as clouds or the earth's surface (oceans and continents), is absorbed by the earth's surface, which heats up by absorbing it. In return, surfaces and the atmosphere emit infrared radiation, the hotter the surface, the more intense the radiation. Some of this radiation is absorbed by certain gases and clouds, then re-emitted towards the surface, helping to warm it. This phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect.Sources: from Météo-France; IPCC, 1st Working Group, 2021 The increase in the atmospheric concentration of GHGs due to anthropogenic emissions (see glossary) increases the emission of energy towards the ground, leading to an imbalance in the Earth's energy balance and a rise in its surface temperature. The change in radiation induced by an element relative to a reference year is called radiative forcing. A positive radiative forcing indicates a positive contribution to global warming. The total anthropogenic radiative forcing amounts to + 3.8 W\/m2 for GHGs and - 1.1 W\/m2 for aerosols in 2019 compared with 1750, i.e. a net total of + 2.7 W\/m2. Greenhouse gases (GHG) Excluding water vapor, GHGs occupy less than 0.1% of atmospheric volume. Water vapor, which fluctuates between 0.4% and 4%, is the main greenhouse gas. Human activities have very little direct impact on fluctuations in its concentration, but do have a strong impact on the concentrations of other GHGs. CO2 Carbon dioxide CH4 Methane N2O Nitrous oxide HFC Hydrofluorocarbons PFC Perfluorocarbons SF6 Sulfur hexafluoride NF3 Nitrogen trifluoride Atmospheric concentration 2022* (in 2005 in brackets) 417ppm (379ppm) 1,912ppb (1,774ppb) 336ppb (319ppb) 255ppt (> 49ppt) 92.8ppt (> 4.1ppt) 11ppt (5.7ppt) 2.5ppt (0ppt) Global warming power (cumulative over 100 years) 1 28 265 [< 1 ;12,400] depending ongases [< 1; 11 ,100] depending on gases 23,500 16,100 Source of anthropogenic emissions Fossil fuel combustion, industrial processes and tropical deforestation Landfills, agriculture, livestock farming and industrial processes Agriculture, industrial processes, fertilizer use Sprays, refrigeration, industrial processes Manufacture of electronic components Change in radiative forcing in 2022** since 1750 due to anthropogenic emissions (W\/m2) (in 2005 in brackets) +2.17 (+1.66) + 0.65 (+ 0.59) + 0.193 (+ 0.14) + 0.05 (+ 0.02) * In 2021 for HFC, PFC, SF6, NF3 gases.** In 2019 for HFC, PFC, SF6, NF3 gases.Note: ppm= part per million; ppb= part per billion; ppt= part per thousand billion.Sources: IPCC, 2014; Agage, 2021; NOAA, 2023 Global Warming Potential (GWP, see glossary) is the ratio between the energy returned to the ground in 100 years by 1 kg of gas and that which would be returned by 1 kg of CO2. It depends on the radiative properties and lifetimes of gases in the atmosphere. For example, 1 kg of methane (CH4) will warm the atmosphere as much as 28 kg of CO2 in the century following its emission. Although CO2 is the gas with the lowest global warming potential, it has contributed the most to global warming since 1750, due to the large quantities emitted. GHG reservoirs and fluxes: the example of CO2 over the years 1750-2019 and 2011-2020 Note: this graph shows: (i) in square brackets, the size of reservoirs in pre-industrial times in billions of tonnes of CO2 in black, and their cumulative variation over the period 1750-2019 in red; (ii) in the form of arrows, carbon flows between reservoirs in billions of tonnes of CO2 equivalent per year (see glossary). Pre-industrial flows are shown in black. Those linked to anthropogenic activities between 2011 and 2020 are in red.Sources: from IPCC, 1st Working Group, 2021; Friedlingstein et al., Global Carbon Budget 2021, 2022 Four major reservoirs store carbon in different forms: atmosphere: CO2 gas; terrestrial biosphere: soils and vegetation of forest, agricultural and peatland ecosystems... ocean: limestone, dissolved CO2; marine flora and fauna (plankton); subsoil: rocks, sediments, fossil fuels. Carbon flows between these reservoirs originate from the natural carbon cycle, to which are added the disturbances linked to anthropogenic CO2 emissions (notably the combustion of fossil organic carbon reserves), which modify the exchanged flows or create new ones. Imbalance between emissions and CO2 storage capacityNet annual anthropogenic CO2flows averaged over the period 2011-2021 (emissions to the atmosphere and uptake by terrestrial and oceanic reservoirs) Note: the uncertainty for the increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration is very small (± 0. 02 Gt CO2 \/year) and has not been represented on the graph.Source: Friedlingstein et al, Global Carbon Budget, 2023 Over the last decade (2011-2021), of the 42 Gt CO2 generated on average per year by human activities, the atmosphere has absorbed almost 19 Gt, the terrestrial reservoirs (vegetation and soils) 12 Gt and the oceans 10 Gt. The atmosphere is the reservoir most affected by anthropogenic activities: it has absorbed almost 50% of the carbon emitted over the last sixty years. Atmospheric CO2 concentration Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), USA, 2023 Since the development of industrial activities, land and ocean reservoirs have absorbed more than half of anthropogenic emissions. The remaining emissions persist in the atmosphere, driving up GHG concentrations. The role of the forest cycle on a global scale On a global scale, forest land is a carbon sink. The gross sink attributed to the terrestrial biosphere - i.e. essentially to forests- offsets 29% of annual anthropogenic carbon emissions, or around 11 Gt CO2 (Friedlingstein et al., 2022). By integrating deforestation (forest land converted to other uses), the forestry sector becomes, conversely, a source of carbon. Deforestation leads to emissions linked to the loss of forest carbon stocks through the combustion and decomposition of organic matter. These net emissions (from forested land in particular) represent around 14% of annual anthropogenic carbon emissions worldwide (IPCC, 2022). In France, net carbon sequestration in forest biomass is estimated at around 27.6 Mt CO2 eq for the year 2022, while the sink in wood products is 1.4 Mt CO2 eq. In total, forests and wood products have sequestered 7% of national GHG emissions (excluding land use, land-use change and forestry, LULUCF, see glossary) - (Citepa, 2023).","link":"3-causes-of-climate-change.php","title":"Climate scenarios and projections"},{"page_id":16,"values":"Climate scenarios and projections Projections of CO2 emissions according to the five IPCC scenarios Note: the last numbers (1.9, 2.6, 4.5, 7.0 and 8.5) naming each trajectory correspond to the radiative forcings induced by 2100 compared with the pre-industrial era, expressed in W\/m2.Source: IPCC, 1st working group, 2021 The IPCC published its first report (First Assessment Report) in 1990. The first volume of its sixth report (AR6) was published in August 2021. With each publication, the IPCC communicates climate projections based on GHG concentration assumptions and presents the state of scientific knowledge on climate change. A core set of five scenarios based on shared socio-economic trajectories (SSPs) is used consistently in the 6th IPCC Assessment Report (AR6). These scenarios cover a range of GHG emission trajectories, from low with climate change mitigation to high. For example, the SSP1-2.6 scenario corresponds to sustainable development that would limit temperature rise to 1.8°C by the end of the century. The worst-case scenario (SSP5-8.5) would lead to a rise of 4.4°C. Methane (CH4), the second major component of greenhouse gases Note: monthly averages of air samples taken from the world's marine surfaces.Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), USA, 2023 The average atmospheric concentration of methane in 2022 is 1.91 ppm (NOAA preliminary estimate), around 220 times less than that of CO2. However, its global warming potential (GWP, see glossary) is 84 times greater than that of CO2 during the first 20 years following its emission. More than a quarter of global warming since pre-industrial times could be attributed to methane. The increase in methane emissions has accelerated in recent years, including during the Covid-19 pandemic. CH4 emissions projections according to the five IPCC scenarios Source: IPCC, 1st working group, 2021 Temperature and sea-level evolution according to the five IPCC scenarios Projected global mean temperature change compared with the period 1850-1900 Source: IPCC, 1st working group, 2021 Projected average sea level rise compared with 1900 Note: solid lines show median projections. Shaded areas show probable ranges for SSP1-2.6 and SSP3-7.0. The dotted line (83rd percentile) indicates a maximum, albeit low-probability, impact of the SSP5-8.5 scenario on sea levels.Source: IPCC, 1st Working Group, 2021 The main factors driving sea-level rise (see p.14) are thermal expansion of the oceans and melting of land-based ice reservoirs (glaciers, polar ice caps, etc.). By 2100, mean sea levels will have risen by between 0.28 and 0.55 m relative to the 1995-2014 average under the sustainable development scenario (SSP1-2.6), and by between 0.63 and 1.02 m under the worst-case scenario (SSP5-8.5). Rising sea levels are likely to cause major population migrations, as over a billion people live in coastal lowlands (less than 10 meters above sea level). Carbon budgets and rising temperatures The remaining carbon budget corresponds to a maximum amount of CO2 emissions for which there is a reasonable probability of avoiding average temperatures rising above a certain level. Only the most ambitious trajectories in terms of climate change mitigation efforts (SSP1-1.9 and SSP1-2.6) could limit the rise in temperatures to 1.5°C and 2°C respectively by 2100. In 2021, the UN assessed that the commitments made by the parties to the Paris Agreement place the world on SSP2-4.5, which is associated with a temperature rise by 2100 of between 2 and 2.9°C compared with the period 1850-1900. Remaining carbon budget to limit the average temperature increase to 1.5°C and 2°C Note: values are expressed as a percentage of the total carbon budget since pre-industrial times, obtained by comparing cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2021 (Friedlingstein et al., 2022) with the carbon budget remaining from 2019 (IPCC, 2021). Carbon budgets are given with a 67% probability of meeting the associated climate target (1.5°C or 2°C). Uncertainty scales concerning carbon budgets are high, in the order of ± 3.7 Gt CO2. They stem in particular from uncertainties concerning the evolution and impact of greenhouse gases other than CO2, the reactions of the climate system to increasing cumulative emissions and radiative forcing, and the reactions of the Earth system to rising temperatures.Sources: I4CE, based on Friedlingstein et al, Global Carbon Budget 2021, 2022; IPCC, 1st Working Group, 2021 To limit the average temperature rise to 2°C compared with the pre-industrial era with a 67% probability, the remaining carbon budget from 2021 is 1,075 Gt CO2, and only 325 Gt CO2 to limit the rise to 1.5°C (IPCC, 2021). If CO2 emissions continue to grow at this rate, the remaining carbon budget, which would with two chances out of three enable us to limit the temperature rise to 2°C, will be exhausted before 2050. To limit the rise to 1.5°C, it will be exhausted within the next ten years only (IPCC, 2022). Consequences for the worldHistorical emissions and projections according to GHG emission scenarios Source: IPCC, 6th report, 2022 The figure illustrates past and future changes in climate. The scenarios of very low (SSP1-1.9), low (SSP1-2.6), intermediate (SSP2-4.5), high (SSP3-7.0) and very high (SSP5-8.5) GHG emissions are used to obtain future projections (2021-2100) of global surface temperature changes. Current global policies (high and very high scenarios) would lead to a median warming of+3.2°C by 2100 (IPCC, 2023). If they are respected, the commitments made to date by States at the climate COPs would make it possible to contain the rise in temperature to around 2.8°C (from 2.1 to 3.4°C) by the end of the century. Global warming will continue beyond 2100, except for low and very low GHG emission scenarios. Consequences for FranceAnnual soil moisture cycle 1961-1990 average, records and climate simulations for two time horizons (evolution scenario corresponding to current trajectory) Scope: metropolitan France. Source: Climat HD, Météo-France A comparison of the annual soil moisture cycle in France between the 1961-1990 climatic reference period and the near (2021-2050) or distant (2071-2100) time horizons of the 21st century (according to a scenario corresponding to the current trajectory) points to significant drying out in all seasons. In terms of potential impact on vegetation and non-irrigated crops, this evolution translates into an average lengthening of the dry soil period by around 2 to 4 months, while the wet period is reduced in the same proportions. Average soil moisture at the end of the century could thus correspond to today's extreme dry conditions.","link":"4-climate-scenarios-and-projections.php","title":"Global overview of GHG emissions"},{"page_id":17,"values":"Global overview of GHG emissions Breakdown of total GHG emissions (excluding LULUCF*) in 2021 * See glossary.Note: distribution calculated according to the GWP of each gas over 100 years. CO2= carbon dioxide; N2O = nitrous oxide ; CH4= methane.Source: SDES, based on EDGAR, 2022 The Global Warming Potential (GWP) is used to calculate, in t CO2 eq, the impact of the emissions of each gas on the greenhouse effect (see glossary). The GWP of a gas depends on the period over which it is calculated (see p. 20). For example, the GWP of methane is 28 to 30 when calculated over 100 years, and 84 when calculated over 20 years. With the 100-year GWP (the most commonly used), CO2 accounts for three-quarters of GHG emissions in 2021. In 2021, global greenhouse gas emissions (excluding LULUCF) amount to 52.6 Gt CO2 eq. They have more than doubled since 1970, and increased by 58% between 1990 and 2021. The LULUCF sector makes a positive contribution to global GHG emissions. In 2020, emissions from this sector were estimated at 5.8 Gt CO2 eq. Worldwide GHG emissions by fuel Note: the emissions included here are those linked to fossil fuel combustion and fugitive emissions (see glossary). They account for 70% of GHG emissions. Source: IEA, 2023 In 2021, economic activity picked up after the slowdown caused by the pandemic. GHG emissions from energy combustion followed suit, rising by 5.5% to almost the same level as in 2019. This increase concerns all fuels: +6% for coal,+5.5% for oil,+4.8% for natural gas and +1.2% for other fuels. Coal combustion generates 43% of global emissions (up 7 points on 1971), compared with 33% for oil (down 17 points) and 23% for natural gas (up 9 points). In 50 years, global GHG emissions linked to energy combustion have multiplied by 2.3. Primary energy mix in the world Source: IEA, 2023 Energy-related emissions depend on the level of energy consumption (up 168% between 1971 and 2021) and on the primary energy mix (see glossary), which at global level remains dominated by fossil fuels in 2021 (oil, coal and natural gas: 80% of the total between them). Oil remains the world's leading energy source, even though its share fell by 15 points between 1971 and 2021, mainly to the benefit of natural gas (+7 points) and nuclear power (+4 points). However, coal remains the leading source of emissions. Indeed, it has a much higher emission factor than natural gas and oil (see p. 84). Coal consumption, which had risen sharply in the 2000s, has stagnated or even declined in recent years. Although stable overall since 1971, the share of renewable energies has risen slightly over the last ten years, reaching 15% of the mix in 2021. Sectoral breakdown of GHG emissions from energy combustion in 2021 * Including cogeneration and autoproduction.Source: IEA, 2023 In 2021, electricity generation remains the world's largest GHG-emitting sector, accounting for 39% of total emissions from energy combustion. It is followed by transport (21%) and industry (17%, including construction). In China, industry and the energy sector (electricity and non-electricity) together account for 81% of GHG emissions from energy combustion, compared with a world average of 61%. Transportation plays a greater role in the United States (34%) and the European Union (29%), as do the residential and services sectors. Worldwide, fugitive emissions (see glossary) account for 9% of emissions linked to energy combustion.","link":"5-global-overview-of-ghg-emissions.php","title":"Geographical breakdown and trends in GHG emissions"},{"page_id":18,"values":"Geographical breakdown and trends in GHG emissions Geographical breakdown of worldwide GHG emissions (excluding LULUCF) In Mt CO2 eq 1990 2020 2021 2021 share (%) 2020-2021 change (%) 1990-2021 change (%) North America 7,247 6,997 7,285 13.8 + 4.1 + 0.5 Canada 582 727 743 1.4 + 2.2 + 27.6 United States 6,199 5,566 5,810 11.0 + 4.4 - 6.3 Central and South America 1,687 2,769 2,917 5.5 + 5.4 + 73.0 Brazil 702 1,297 1,375 2.6 + 6.1 + 96.0 Europe and former USSR 11,065 7,638 7,984 15.2 + 4.5 - 27.8 EU 27 4,991 3,457 3,632 6.9 + 5.1 - 27.2 Germany 1,237 743 779 1.5 + 4.9 - 37.0 Spain 299 287 307 0.6 + 6.9 + 2.6 France 556 406 429 0.8 + 5.6 - 22.8 Italy 531 373 395 0.8 + 6.0 - 25.7 Poland 519 392 416 0.8 + 5.9 - 20.0 United Kingdom 779 405 420 0.8 + 3.7 - 46.1 Russia 3,090 2,401 2,570 4.9 + 7.0 - 16.9 Sub-Saharan Africa 1,277 2,371 2,430 4.6 + 2.5 + 90.3 Middle East and North Africa 1,763 4,441 4,643 8.8 + 4.6 + 163.4 Saudi Arabia 235 761 775 1.5 + 1.9 + 230.1 Asia 8,979 24,565 25,554 48.6 + 4.0 + 184.6 China 4,018 14,734 15,266 29.0 + 3.6 + 280.0 South Korea 326 685 709 1.3 + 3.5 + 117.8 India 1,421 3,560 3,835 7.3 + 7.7 + 169.9 Japan 1,316 1,151 1,182 2.2 + 2.7 - 10.2 Oceania 535 654 648 1.2 - 0.9 + 21.3 Annex I countries (see glossary) 19,105 15,439 16,112 30.6 + 4.4 - 15.7 Non-Annex I countries 13,447 33,996 35,351 67.2 + 4.0 + 162.9 International aviation bunkers 263 343 395 0.8 + 15.4 + 50.6 International marine bunkers 394 707 741 1.4 + 4.8 + 88.0 World 33,209 50,485 52,599 100.0 + 4.2 + 58.4 Note: international bunkers correspond to emissions from international sea and air transport, which are excluded from national totals (see glossary).Source: EDGAR, 2022 After the drop in 2020 due to the health crisis, global GHG emissions rose by 4.2% in 2021, exceeding the 2019 level (+0. 5%). This recovery concerns all regions of the world, with the exception of Oceania, due in particular to the continuation of significant sanitary restrictions until the end of the year in Australia and New Zealand. By 2022, global GHG emissions have increased by 1.4% (EDGAR, 2023). Global GHG emissions between 1970 and 2021 Source: EDGAR, 2022 In 2021, China remains the world's leading GHG emitter (29% of global emissions), ahead of the United States (11%), India (7.3%) and the European Union (6.9%). Between 1990 and 2021, global GHG emissions rose by 58% (+ 19.3 Gt CO2 eq). Over this period, the biggest contributors to this rise were China (+ 280%, or + 11.2 Gt CO2 eq), India(+ 170%, or+2.4 Gt CO2 eq) and the Middle East and North Africa zone (+163%, or+2.9 Gt CO2 eq). Over the same period, emissions in the United States began to fall (-6. 3%); the drop was even more marked for the European Union (-27.2%) and France (-22.8%). Cumulative CO2 emissions since 1750 by major world region Note: emissions from fossil carbon combustion (excluding LULUCF and international transport) from 1750 to 2021.Source: The Global Carbon Project's fossil CO2 emissions dataset, Andrew, Robbie M. & Peters, Glen P., 2022 Since the beginning of the industrial era, Europe and Eurasia have contributed a third and the United States a quarter of cumulative CO2 emissions. Asia now accounts for almost a third of global emissions, and China for 15%. Worldwide GHG emissions per capita (excluding LULUCF) In t CO2 eq\/capita 1990 2020 2021 2020-2021 change (%) 1990-2021 change (%) North America 20.2 14.1 14.7 + 3.8 - 27.4 Canada 21.0 19.1 19.4 + 1.6 - 7.6 United States 24.8 16.8 17.5 + 4.2 - 29.5 Central and South America 4.7 5.3 5.5 + 4.6 + 17.8 Brazil 4.7 6.1 6.4 + 5.5 + 37.8 Europe and former USSR 7.3 4.5 4.7 + 4.5 - 34.9 EU 27 11.9 7.7 8.1 + 5.2 - 31.6 Germany 15.6 8.9 9.4 + 4.8 - 39.9 Spain 7.7 6.1 6.5 + 6.7 - 15.9 France 9.6 6.0 6.3 + 5.3 - 33.8 Italy 9.4 6.3 6.7 + 6.6 - 28.7 Poland 13.6 10.3 11.0 + 6.4 - 19.2 United Kingdom 13.6 6.0 6.2 + 3.7 - 53.9 Russia 20.9 16.7 17.9 + 7.5 - 14.2 Sub-Saharan Africa 2.4 2.0 2.0 - 0.1 - 16.6 Middle East and North Africa 5.3 7.5 7.7 + 3.3 + 45.5 Saudi Arabia 14.7 21.1 21.6 + 2.0 + 47.0 Asia 3.1 5.9 6.1 + 3.4 + 97.2 China 3.5 10.4 10.8 + 3.5 + 205.4 South Korea 7.6 13.2 13.7 + 3.7 + 80.4 India 1.6 2.5 2.7 + 6.9 + 66.9 Japan 10.7 9.1 9.4 + 3.1 - 11.8 Oceania 10.9 8.4 8.3 - 1.4 - 24.0 Annex I countries (see glossary) 16.0 11.2 11.7 + 4.4 - 26.5 Non-Annex I countries 3.3 5.3 5.4 + 2.9 + 65.3 World 6.3 6.5 6.7 + 3.3 + 6.3 Note: these are the GHG emissions of an area divided by its population. The emissions caused on average by an inhabitant's consumption are covered by a different approach (footprint approach, see p. 65).Sources: SDES, based on EDGAR, 2022; World Bank, 2023 In 2021, global GHG emissions averaged 6.7 t CO2 eq per capita, up on 2020 (+3.3%) but below 2019 (-1. 2%). While population growth remains close to the previous year's level (+0. 8%), global emissions are rising sharply against a backdrop of recovering economic activity (+4.2%). Per capita emissions show significant geographical disparities, with low levels in Latin America (5.5), India (2.7) and sub-Saharan Africa (2). Average emissions in the European Union (8.1) are higher, though lower than in the United States (17.5), Canada (19.4), Russia (17.9) and China (10.8). French emissions (6.3) are slightly below the world average. Worldwide per capita GHG emissions between 1990 and 2021 Sources: SDES, based on EDGAR, 2022; World Bank, 2023 In 2021, worldwide per capita emissions were 6.3% higher than in 1990. Developed countries and countries in transition (Annex I countries, see glossary) have higher average emissions (11.7 t CO2 eq\/capita in 2021), but these have been falling over the last 30 years (-26.5% since 1990). The other countries have emissions 2.2 times lower on average (5.4 t CO2 eq\/capita), but they have risen sharply since 1990 (+65.3%). In detail, per capita emissions in Asia rose by 97% between 1990 and 2021 (+205% in China,+67 in India, but-12 in Japan). Over the same period, per capita emissions fell by 54% in the United Kingdom, 32% in the European Union (including-34% in France and-40% in Germany), and 30% in the United States. In sub-Saharan Africa, strong population growth has led to a 17% drop in per-capita emissions compared with 1990, keeping them at a low level (2 t CO2 eq\/capita in 2021). Worldwide GHG emissions relative to GDP (excluding LULUCF) In t CO2 eq\/million $2017 PPP 1990 2020 2021 2020-2021 change (%) 1990-2021 change (%) North America 589 291 287 - 1.6 - 51.3 Canada 608 414 403 - 2.7 - 33.7 United States 614 279 275 - 1.5 - 55.2 America 541 409 400 - 2.2 - 26.1 Brazil 448 431 435 + 1.0 - 2.7 Europe and former USSR 261 120 118 - 1.7 - 54.9 EU 27 416 185 184 - 0.5 - 55.8 Germany 424 172 176 + 2.2 - 58.5 Spain 279 168 170 + 1.3 - 39.0 France 283 142 141 - 1.1 - 50.2 Italy 256 160 159 - 0.9 - 38.0 Poland 1,211 318 315 - 0.9 - 74.0 United Kingdom 435 145 139 - 3.7 - 67.9 Russia 972 617 625 + 1.3 - 35.7 Sub-Saharan Africa 816 545 537 - 1.5 - 34.2 Middle East and North Africa 555 443 437 - 1.4 - 21.3 Saudi Arabia 348 472 463 - 2.0 + 33.0 Asia 846 496 479 - 2.5 - 43.3 China 2,486 641 612 - 4.5 -75.4 South Korea 600 312 310 - 0.6 - 48.4 India 897 413 408 - 1.2 - 54.5 Japan 324 228 229 + 0.5 - 29.4 Oceania 396 206 198 - 3.6 - 49.9 Annex I countries (see glossary) 548 270 267 - 0.9 - 51.2 Non-Annex I countries 814 489 476 - 2.7 - 41.5 World 646 398 391 - 1.9 - 39.5 Note: GDP in volume, converted into US dollars at purchasing power parity (PPP), for 2017 (see glossary).Sources: SDES, based on EDGAR, 2022; World Bank, 2023 Although less dispersed than per-capita emissions levels, emissions-to-GDP ratios vary widely between countries, around a global average of 391 t CO2 eq\/million $. Some of the highest values are reached in China (612 t CO2 eq\/million $) and Russia (625). Conversely, levels are much lower in Japan (229), the United States (275) and the European Union (184), particularly France (141). Worldwide GHG emissions relative to GDP between 1990 and 2021 Sources: SDES, based on EDGAR, 2022; World Bank, 2023 Between 2020 and 2021, the quantity of GHGs emitted per unit of GDP worldwide fell by 1.9%, a rate equivalent to that observed on average over the last ten years (- 2%). In a context of recovery from the health crisis, this decline can be explained by slower growth in emissions (+4.2%) than in GDP (+6% in 2021). Since 1990, the quantity of GHGs emitted per unit of GDP has fallen by more than a third (-40%) worldwide, while GDP itself has increased by a factor of 2.6. With a few rare exceptions, the majority of the world's economies are concerned by this drop in the GHG intensity of wealth production. The reduction is most pronounced in China (-75%), a country with a particularly high historical level. Intensity has also been halved in the European Union (-56%) and the United States (-55%).","link":"6-geographical-breakdown-and-trends-in.php","title":"European overview of GHG emissions"},{"page_id":19,"values":"European overview of GHG emissions GHG emissions in the EU-27 in 2021 In Mt CO2 eq Source Years CO2 CH4 N2O Fluorinated gases Total Energy use 1990 3,545.6 178.3 23.3 0.0 3,747.1 2021 2,570.2 69.9 22.7 0.0 2,662.7 Industrial processes 1990 310.0 1.8 83.1 49.7 444.7 2021 231.7 1.7 6.6 77.9 317.9 Agriculture 1990 14.2 296.1 174.3 0.0 484.6 2021 9.8 232.1 136.5 0.0 378.4 Waste 1990 3.8 172.2 8.1 0.0 184.2 2021 2.7 98.0 8.6 0.0 109.3 Total excluding LULUCF 1990 3,880.0 648.4 288.8 49.7 4,867.0 2021 2,817.7 401.7 174.4 77.9 3,471.7 LULUCF 1990 - 234.4 14.2 11.4 0.0 - 208.8 2021 - 253.5 12.9 10.6 0.0 - 230.0 Total 1990 3,645.6 662.6 300.2 49.7 4,658.2 2021 2,564.2 414.6 185.0 77.9 3,241.7 Note: the waste sector excludes incineration with energy recovery (included in \"Energy use\").Source: UNFCCC format - EEA, 2023 In 2021, the European Union's GHG emissions, excluding LULUCF, amounted to 3.5 Gt CO2 eq. CO2 accounts for 81.2% of these emissions, while 11.6% are due to methane (CH4). In a context of economic recovery following the health crisis, emissions rose by 5.1% compared with 2020. Over the longer term, they are 28.9% lower than in 1990. GHG emissions (excluding LULUCF) of EU member countries in 2021 and trends since 1990 Note: the graph shows each country's emissions in 2021 and their evolution since 1990. For example, Germany emitted 760 Mt CO2 eq in 2021, down 39.2% on 1990.Source: UNFCCC format - EEA, 2023 GHG emissions (excluding LULUCF) in the 27-member European Union fell by 29% between 1990 and 2021. Germany, Italy, France, Poland and Spain, which account for two-thirds of EU emissions in 2021, contribute unevenly to this decline: + 0. 4% for Spain, - 15.8% for Poland, - 19.9% for Italy, - 23.1% for France and - 39.2% for Germany (the countries that formerly belonged to the USSR generally experienced a sharp drop as they left behind a less efficient, highly industrialized, planned economy). Among the other member countries, the level of decline is highly variable, with some countries dividing their emissions by 2 or more, notably the Baltic states (Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania), while others, such as Ireland and Cyprus, saw their emissions increase over the same period. Breakdown by source of GHG emissions in the EU-27 between 1990 and 2021 Source: UNFCCC format - EEA, 2023 In the European Union, energy use remains the main source of GHG emissions in 2021 (76.7% of the total excluding LULUCF), followed by agriculture (10.9%) and industrial processes (9.2%). 33.9% of energy use comes from the energy industry, notably electricity production, and 29.4% from transport. Between 2020 and 2021, total emissions excluding LULUCF rose by 5.1%. Emissions linked to energy use were up (6.5%), driven by the energy industry (+7.1%) and above all transport (+8.6%), particularly affected by the Covid-19 pandemic. Increases were also seen in the manufacturing and construction industries (+6. 5%) and, to a lesser extent, in the residential and services sectors (+3%). Emissions from industrial processes also rose (+3.6%), while emissions from other sources (agriculture, waste) fell slightly. Over the longer term, emissions have fallen since 1990 in all these sectors, with the notable exception of transport (+16. 3%, see p. 48).","link":"7-european-overview-of-ghg-emissions.php","title":"Sectorial focus: electricity, transport and LULUCF"},{"page_id":20,"values":"Sectorial focus: electricity, transport and LULUCF CO2 emissions to produce 1 kWh of electricity in the EU Note: cogeneration and autoproducers are included.Source: SDES, based on IEA, 2023 Since 1990, CO2 emissions for the production of 1 kWh of electricity have fallen by 51.4% in the European Union, to 264 g CO2 \/kWh in 2021. Although this trend can be seen in almost all EU countries, emission levels vary widely. Emissions are high in countries where the coal industry is still important, such as Germany (384 g CO2 \/kWh) or, even more so, Poland (748 g CO2 \/kWh). Conversely, they are lower in countries that have developed nuclear and\/or renewable energies, such as France (mainly nuclear, 60 g CO2 \/kWh) or Sweden (mainly renewables, 34 g CO2 \/kWh). GHG emissions from transport in the EU-27 Note: emissions from international transport (including between two EU-27 countries) by sea and by air are excluded from the totals presented on p. 44.Source: UNFCCC format - EEA, 2023 GHG emissions from transport rose by 16.3% between 1990 and 2021 (excluding international transport). This growth is due to the increase in road traffic. Emissions caused by this mode increased by 20.6% over the same period, while those linked to other modes decreased (-26.5% for sea and river transport,-17% for air transport,-70.8% for rail transport). The majority of member countries saw their transport-related emissions rise, albeit very unevenly, e.g. +229.5% for Poland,+113.7% for Ireland,+45.8% for Spain. Other countries, such as France and Italy, are stagnating, and a few are falling, notably Germany (-10. 2%) and Sweden (-23%). Including international transport, the increase in transport-related GHG emissions between 1990 and 2021 is 18.4%, with emissions from international air and sea traffic rising faster than those from domestic transport: +28.9% for air and+26.4% for sea. GHG emissions from LULUCF in the EU-27 Source: UNFCCC format - EEA, 2023 Total emissions from land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) are negative in the European Union, meaning that LULUCF sequesters more GHGs than it emits. This result is mainly due to the growth of forests, while the urbanization of land and the cultivation of grasslands contribute to increasing emissions.","link":"8-sectorial-focus-electricity--transport.php","title":"French overview of greenhouse gases"},{"page_id":21,"values":"French overview of greenhouse gases GHG emissions in France in 2022 (provisional estimate) In Mt CO2 eq Source Years CO2 CH4 N2O Fluorinated gases Total Energy industry 1990 70.4 7.5 0.4 0.5 78.9 2022 43.2 0.9 0.2 0.2 44.6 Manufacturing and construction 1990 107.0 0.4 21.5 10.5 139.4 2022 69.2 0.3 0.8 2.7 73.0 Transport 1990 121.7 1.1 0.9 0.0 123.7 2022 127.2 0.2 1.2 1.9 130.5 Residential and services building use and activities 1990 85.6 6.8 0.8 0.1 93.3 2022 54.8 4.0 0.6 4.6 64.0 Agriculture\/forestry 1990 11.7 49.7 26.9 0.0 88.3 2022 11.4 42.6 22.5 0.1 76.5 Centralized waste processing 1990 1.9 13.3 0.5 0.0 15.8 2022 1.5 13.2 0.5 0.0 15.2 Total excluding LULUCF 1990 398.3 78.8 51.1 11.1 539.3 2022 307.3 61.2 25.8 9.5 403.8 LULUCF 1990 - 20.5 1.1 2.3 0.0 - 17.1 2022 - 19.1 1.1 1.1 0.0 - 16.9 Transport - not included in total 1990 16.8 0.0 0.1 0.0 16.9 2022 15.2 0.0 0.1 0.0 15.3 Natural emissions - not included in total 1990 0.0 3.2 0.0 0.0 3.3 2022 0.0 3.8 0.0 0.0 3.9 Total 1990 377.8 79.9 53.4 11.1 522.2 2022 288.1 62.3 26.9 9.5 386.9 Note: the data used in this section are presented in the Secten format, which offers a detailed sectoral breakdown and enables national objectives to be monitored, in particular in the national low-carbon strategy (SNBC). It also provides more recent estimated data than official reporting formats such as the UNFCCC. For more details on inventory formats, see appendices. The 2022 data from Citepa is therefore a preliminary estimate. For some sectors, such as agriculture, waste or LULUCF, the previous year's value is used. Transport - not included in total: emissions from sea, river and international air transport.Natural emissions - not included in total: natural emissions of non-anthropogenic origin (volcanism, lightning, etc.), non-exhaustive estimate.Scope: unless otherwise stated, in this section, emissions in \"France\" correspond to the Kyoto Protocol perimeter: metropolitan France and overseas territories included in the EU (Guadeloupe, French Guiana, Reunion, Martinique, Mayotte and Saint-Martin).Source: Secten format - Citepa, 2023 In 2022, GHG emissions in France, excluding LULUCF, represented 403.8 Mt CO2 eq, of which 76.1% were CO2 and 15.2% methane (CH4). They were 2.7% lower than in 2021, and 25.1% lower than in 1990. Transport was the leading emitting sector in 2022, with 130.5 Mt CO2 eq (32.3% of emissions excluding LULUCF), followed by agriculture (19%), manufacturing and construction (18.1%), the energy industry (11%) and centralized waste treatment (3.8%). France stands out from the rest of the EU for its low share of emissions from the energy industry, due to the high proportion of nuclear power in electricity production. Sectoral breakdown of GHG emissions in France in 2022 (provisional estimate) Note: 2022 data are a preliminary estimate.Source: Secten format - Citepa, 2023 GHG emissions in France by sector between 1990 and 2022 Note: 2022 data are a preliminary estimate.Source: Secten format - Citepa, 2023 By 2022, total emissions, excluding LULUCF, have fallen by 2.7%. The drop is particularly marked in the residential and services sectors (-14.7%), and also concerns manufacturing and construction (-6. 4%). Emissions from transport rose by 2.3%, while those from the energy industry increased by 4.9%. Over the longer term, the drop in emissions is most marked in manufacturing and construction (-47.7% on 1990), the energy industry (-43.5%) and the residential and services sectors (-31.3%). Conversely, transport-related emissions rose by 5.5% over the same period.","link":"9-french-overview-of-greenhouse-gases.php"},{"page_id":22,"values":null,"link":"index.php"}];