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France and the nine planetary boundaries
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Introduction of novel entities into the biosphere

A planetary boundary not precisely quantified but considered trasngressed

Since 201536, this ninth planetary boundary includes all entities, in the geological sense, produced, put into circulation and released into the environment by human activities. These entities (synthetic substances, new forms of existing substances, modified life forms) are likely to have undesirable effects on ecosystems, living organisms and health. They include chemical substances such as drug residues, additives, pesticides, endocrine disruptors and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), as well as nanomaterials, plastic polymers and genetically modified organisms, all of which are liable to disrupt physical and/or biological balances.

On a large scale, some substances are persistent and migrate over large geographical areas, threatening the integrity of the biosphere. Beyond their global impact on the health of animals, humans and ecosystems ("one health" concept according to the One Health High-Level Expert Panel or OHHLEP, 2021), they act as a slow-moving variable affecting other planetary boundaries. For example, CFC emissions can have adverse effects on the stratospheric ozone layer, or interact with the aerosol limit, as many persistent pollutants are transported over long distances by aerosol particles. In terms of health, chronic exposure to a pollutant can lead to the disruption of various biological functions, including an increase in neurodevelopmental disorders, particularly in the most sensitive populations (foetal life and early childhood). These pollutants can also alter plants and affect biodiversity by disrupting the physiology of certain species, or their ability to reproduce or feed.

Since 2009, as part of the work on planetary boundaries, researchers have been trying to define how to characterize and quantify this boundary, given its complexity and the absence of data in certain territories. In a study published in 2021 (Persson et al., 2021), the authors point out that the nature of this boundary requires the consideration of several control variables (relating to the production, release and undesirable impacts of these new entities) which, together, could provide a solid basis for a better understanding of planetary risks. They also suggest paying particular attention to plastic pollution, which they see as a very worrying problem. Although quantification of this limit is currently limited, the authors believe that the production and release of new entities, as well as the diversity of the substances concerned, is increasing at such a rate as to exceed the capacity of companies to carry out safety assessments and controls, prior to the release of products potentially dangerous to the planet. Today, 350,000 chemical products are sold on the world market (plastics, pesticides, medicines, industrial chemical compounds, etc.), with production increasing 50-fold since 1950. They conclude that the safe operating space for novel entities has now been transgressed (Table 11).

In view of this, the authors suggest continuing research into new entities, and developing more operational control variables (more robust quantification, collection of finer-grained global, local and temporal data). They add that these actions must go hand in hand with the immediate implementation of measures aimed at reducing the damage currently caused by exceeding the limit: reducing the production of these new entities by setting a ceiling on chemical production and emissions, moving towards a massive circular economy (reuse of materials and products), taking recycling into account in product design, improving pollution prevention at source, and improving chemical management. Finally, while a more preventive, risk-based approach is needed for new entities, it is also necessary for all Earth system processes.

36 Before 2015, this limit, entitled "chemical pollution", covered a more restricted perimeter.

Table 11: Control variables and planetary boundary for the introduction of novel entities into the biosphere

Control variables

Examples

Current situation

Trends in production of novel entities

Production volume of chemicals

Global production multiplied by at least 50 between 1950 and 2015. It should triple by 2050 compared to 2010.

Production volume of plastics

Global production up 79% between 2000 and 2015.

Cumulative global production is set to triple by 2050.

Trends in release of novel entities into the environment

Emission quantities of hazardous chemicals

Primary emissions data available for very few new entities in very few countries.

Upward trend in emissions, despite improved emission controls for a limited number of substances (including substitution effects).

Release quantities of plastics into the environment

3.8% increase in quantities of plastics released into the environment between 2014 and 2015.

Around 22 Mt of plastics discharged into the environment per year in 2019, including 6 Mt discharged into aquatic environments (OECD, 2022).

Unwanted impact of novel entities on Earth system processes

Toxicity of chemical pollution

Freshwater pollution by the pesticide metolachlor and bisphenol A in Europe.

Disturbance to biosphere integrity by plastic pollution

Extensive evidence of the physical and toxicological effects of plastic pollution, particularly on the distribution and sensitivity of species.

Source: based on Persson et al., 2021

Policies and actions to combat pollution

Although the consequences of new entities are sometimes little known, public authorities have developed provisions and regulations to regulate their dissemination. These provisions have been adopted in line with the precautionary principle, which stipulates that the authorities shall prevent the occurrence of potentially serious and irreversible damage to the environment, even though such damage is uncertain in the present state of scientific knowledge, in particular by adopting provisional and proportionate measures. In France, the precautionary principle is enshrined in Article 5 of the Constitutional Charter of the Environment.

Plastics

Among new entities, the fight against plastic pollution is now a major political issue. At international level, negotiations on an international treaty to put an end to plastic pollution began in 2022 under the aegis of the United Nations. These negotiations could lead to the implementation of voluntary or binding measures throughout the plastics value chain.

At European level, the Green Pact aims to reduce plastic waste at sea by 50%, and microplastics released into the environment by 30%, notably through the implementation of the 2019 European directive on single-use plastics. A contribution based on the quantity of plastic packaging waste not recycled by each member state, commonly known as the "plastic tax", has also been introduced at European level, to encourage states to reduce this quantity. As underlined by the European Commission's 2022 strategy for sustainable and circular textiles, achieving these objectives also requires eco-design of products such as textiles, whose fibrous breakdown contributes to microplastic pollution.

In France, the anti-waste law for a circular economy, published in 2020, provides for the end of single-use plastic packaging on the market by 2040. In concrete terms, sets of disposable crockery and plastic cotton buds are banned from sale from January 1, 2020, disposable straws or cutlery from January 1, 2021, and non-biodegradable plastic tea or herbal tea bags from January 1, 2022. The law also stipulates that reduction, reuse and recycling targets are to be set every five years. Three targets have been set for 2025: (1) reduce single-use plastic packaging by 20% ; (2) aim for 100% reduction in "unnecessary" single-use plastic packaging; (3) aim for 100% recycling of single-use plastic packaging. Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) schemes also contribute to achieving these targets, by making producers responsible for waste management and prevention. In particular, the "electrical packaging", "textile products" and "electrical and electronic equipment" sectors, whose waste is rich in plastics, play an important role in the fight against plastic pollution.

Chemicals and nanomaterials

At European level, the marketing of chemical substances is regulated by the REACH regulation, adopted in 2006. REACH covers substances used in industrial processes and mixtures (cleaning products, paints, etc.). These substances, when manufactured or imported in quantities of over 1 tonne per year, must be registered, and thus be subject to a health and environmental risk assessment. If a substance is deemed to be of the greatest "concern" from this point of view, its use must be subject to authorization and strict control. If the risk is deemed unacceptable, a substance may be restricted, i.e. its production, marketing or use may be limited or prohibited. The REACH regulation is combined with a regulation on the classification, labeling and packaging of chemicals and mixtures (known as the CLP regulation) and other sector-specific regulations (cosmetics, textiles, foodstuffs, etc.).

The REACH regulation covers nanomaterials in particular, and in 2018 clarified the information to be provided for nanoparticulate forms of substances. Given their size, these substances, when inhaled or ingested, would be able to cross biological barriers and migrate within the body. Nevertheless, as Schwirn et al (2020) point out, uncertainties persist as to how to robustly assess the environmental and toxicological risks of nanomaterials.

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)

The import, marketing and cultivation of GMOs are regulated at European level. Today, around a hundred GMOs and their derivatives are authorized for import into the EU for use in food and feed, compared with over 200 in the USA. According to the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA), 70% of EU feed imports in 2019 will come from genetically modified plants. European regulations have made it compulsory to label GMOs and derived products whenever the raw material is genetically modified. In 2008, France introduced GMO-free labelling for ingredients of plant, animal and bee origin. GMOs authorized for import and marketing in the EU are also authorized in France for the same uses.

Authorization to use GMOs in food or feed does not, however, imply that their cultivation is authorized. For example, MON810 maize is the only GMO authorized for cultivation in Europe. In France, the cultivation of GMOs for commercial purposes has been banned since 2008. By comparison, in the United States, over 120 GMO varieties can be cultivated.

However, GMO regulations do not apply to varieties made tolerant to herbicides (VRTH) by conventional varietal selection- based on crossing existing varieties- or by random mutagenesis in vitro or in vivo - based on the induction of non-target genetic mutations using mutagenic products. According to data from Anses (2020), in 2017, VRTH represented 27% of sunflower acreage and 2% of rapeseed acreage in France.

Nuclear waste

With nuclear power playing a major role in the French energy mix, France produces large quantities of radioactive waste, the long-term disposal of which is a major issue. The radiation emitted by this waste represents the main health risk for humans, wildlife and ecosystems. It also contains chemical elements that can be toxic. The management of this waste is governed at national level by a national radioactive materials and waste management plan, provided for in the European regulatory framework, and revised every three years. This plan takes stock of existing and expected waste quantities, the associated storage facilities, and defines the objectives to be achieved. For radioactive waste that cannot be stored on the surface or at shallow depths for reasons of nuclear safety or radiation protection, the Environmental Code calls for deep geological disposal. This is the aim of the Cigéo (Centre industriel de stockage géologique) project, for which the application for authorization to create the facility was submitted in January 2023.

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